Research Compound Wiki

Semaglutide is a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist (GLP-1 RA) with a molecular weight of 4113.58 Da and CAS number 910463-68-2. It is a 31-amino-acid peptide analog of human GLP-1(7-37) with two key structural modifications: an alpha-aminoisobutyric acid (Aib) substitution at position 8 that confers resistance to dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) enzymatic degradation, and a C18 fatty diacid chain attached via a linker at position 26 (lysine) that enables non-covalent binding to serum albumin.

TB-500 is a synthetic peptide fragment of thymosin beta-4 (Tbeta4), a 43-amino-acid protein that is one of the most abundant intracellular actin-sequestering molecules in mammalian cells. With a molecular weight of approximately 4963 Da, TB-500 encompasses the active region of thymosin beta-4 responsible for actin binding, cell migration, and wound healing.

Tirzepatide is a dual glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist with a molecular weight of 4813.45 Da and CAS number 2023788-19-2. It is a 39-amino-acid synthetic peptide based on the native GIP sequence with modifications that confer activity at both GIP and GLP-1 receptors.

BPC-157 (Body Protection Compound-157) is a synthetic pentadecapeptide consisting of 15 amino acids (Gly-Glu-Pro-Pro-Pro-Gly-Lys-Pro-Ala-Asp-Asp-Ala-Gly-Leu-Val) derived from a partial sequence of human gastric juice protein BPC. It has a molecular weight of 1419.53 Da and a CAS number of 137525-51-0.

Retatrutide (also coded LY3437943) is an investigational once-weekly triple-agonist at the GLP-1, GIP, and glucagon receptors — the third-generation incretin-based therapy developed by Eli Lilly. Where Semaglutide activates GLP-1 alone and Tirzepatide activates both GLP-1 and GIP, retatrutide adds glucagon receptor agonism for synergistic effects on energy expenditure, hepatic lipid metabolism, and weight reduction. As of April 2026, retatrutide is not FDA-approved — it remains in Phase 3 clinical development.

CJC-1295 without DAC (also called Modified GRF 1-29 or MOD-GRF 1-29) is a 30-amino-acid analog of the first 29 residues of endogenous Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH), with four strategic substitutions (D-Ala² for DPP-4 resistance, Gln⁸, Ala¹⁵, Leu²⁷) that extend its plasma half-life from <2 minutes (native GHRH) to ~30 minutes. It was developed by ConjuChem Biotechnologies as the non-albumin-binding companion to CJC-1295 with DAC. This is the physiologic version of CJC-1295.

Tribulus terrestris (scientific name Tribulus terrestris L.; also called puncture vine, caltrop, goat's head, devil's thorn, bindii in Australia, gokshura or gokhru in Sanskrit and Ayurveda, and ci ji li (σê║ΦÆ║Φù£) in Traditional Chinese Medicine) is a low-growing annual herb of the family Zygophyllaceae with a remarkably cosmopolitan distribution — native to warm temperate and tropical regions of Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia, and introduced as an invasive weed across the Americas.

Dong Quai (scientific name Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels; also spelled Dang Gui, Tang Kuei, or Dong Kwai; Chinese σ╜ôσ╜Æ / τò╢µ¡╕) is a perennial herb of the family Apiaceae (the carrot, parsley, and celery family — notable for containing many fragrant, volatile-oil-rich medicinal plants) native to the cool, high-altitude regions of central and northwestern China, particularly Gansu Province (the Min County region is traditionally considered the premium cultivation area), Yunnan, Sichuan, Shaanxi, and Hubei provinces.

Panax ginseng is the canonical Asian adaptogen, the compound that gave "ginseng" its name in the global supplement lexicon, and the most extensively studied herbal medicine in the Asian pharmacopeia.

Fadogia agrestis (also sometimes called "Black Aphrodisiac" or "West African Aphrodisiac" in English-language supplement marketing; bakin gagai in Hausa; and historically known by various regional names across its native range) is a flowering shrub of the family Rubiaceae (the coffee and cinchona family) native to the savanna regions of tropical West and Central Africa — with documented distribution across Nigeria, Sudan, Cameroon, Chad, Senegal, Burkina Faso, and surrounding countries.

Reishi (scientific name Ganoderma lucidum, though the species most commonly cultivated and studied in East Asia is now properly recognized as Ganoderma lingzhi following a 2012 taxonomic revision) is a polypore mushroom known in Chinese as lingzhi (靈芝, "spirit plant" or "mushroom of immortality"), in Japanese as reishi (霊芝) or mannentake ("10,000-year mushroom"), in Korean as yeongji (영지), and in Vietnamese as linh chi.

Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera, also called "Indian ginseng" and "winter cherry") is the most studied and most clinically validated herbal adaptogen in the contemporary supplement market.

IGF-1 Des(1-3) is a truncated variant of insulin-like growth factor-1 missing the first three N-terminal amino acids (Gly-Pro-Glu).

MGF (Mechano Growth Factor) is the local IGF-1Ec splice variant of insulin-like growth factor-1, expressed in skeletal muscle in response to mechanical loading.

Curcumin is the principal bioactive polyphenol extracted from the rhizome of Curcuma longa (turmeric), constituting approximately 2-8% of dried turmeric root by weight along with two related curcuminoids (demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin).

N-acetylcysteine (NAC) is the acetylated form of the amino acid L-cysteine — a small thiol-containing molecule that serves as a rate-limiting precursor for glutathione (GSH) synthesis and, independently, as a direct antioxidant and mucolytic agent.

Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide (Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly) developed by Vladimir Khavinson at the St.

Pineleon is a multi-peptide bioregulator blend combining motifs from the Khavinson-school short peptides — typically Pinealon (Glu-Asp-Arg, a pineal-gland-derived tripeptide) along with epigenetic-tier short peptides like Epitalon and Cortexin-derived sequences.

Lutein is a dihydroxy-xanthophyll carotenoid that functions as the primary blue-light-absorbing, antioxidant macular pigment of the human retina, where along with its stereoisomers zeaxanthin and meso-zeaxanthin it concentrates selectively in the central macula at concentrations exceeding 1,000 times those found in any other body tissue.

Astaxanthin is a red-orange keto-carotenoid xanthophyll, chemically classified as a 3,3''-dihydroxy-beta,beta-carotene-4,4''-dione.

Beta-carotene is the most prominent provitamin A carotenoid and one of the most-studied dietary pigments in human nutrition.

Lycopene is a red pigment carotenoid belonging to the acyclic hydrocarbon carotene subfamily, chemically designated psi,psi-carotene.

Zeaxanthin is a xanthophyll carotenoid that functions alongside lutein and meso-zeaxanthin as one of the three pigments comprising the macula lutea — the yellow spot in the central retina responsible for high-acuity daytime vision.

Pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ, methoxatin) is a small tricyclic o-quinone originally discovered in 1964 as the prosthetic group of bacterial methanol dehydrogenase.

Delta sleep-inducing peptide (DSIP) is a nonapeptide — a 9-amino-acid neuropeptide with sequence Trp-Ala-Gly-Gly-Asp-Ala-Ser-Gly-Glu (WAGGDASGE, 848 Da molecular weight) — first isolated in 1977 from the cerebral venous blood of rabbits subjected to electrical stimulation of the intralaminar thalamus, a brain region involved in sleep regulation.

Acetylated form of Selank peptide with enhanced bioavailability, commonly used as a nasal spray for anxiolytic and nootropic effects..

Acetylated form of Semax peptide with improved stability and potency, used as a nasal spray for cognitive enhancement and neuroprotection..

Nasal spray combining Noopept (a potent nootropic) with Choline Chloride for synergistic cognitive enhancement..

Clenbuterol is a long-acting, selective beta-2 adrenergic receptor agonist originally developed in the late 1970s by Thomae GmbH (later Boehringer Ingelheim) as a bronchodilator for obstructive airway disease.

2-Aminoisoheptane (DMHA/Octodrine) is a psychoactive central nervous system stimulant used as a pre-workout and energy-boosting compound..

Papain is a proteolytic enzyme extracted from the milky latex of the unripe fruit of the papaya tree (Carica papaya), a tropical plant native to southern Mexico and Central America and now cultivated across the tropics.

Choline is an essential nutrient that was classified as a B-vitamin in the 1990s (sometimes loosely called vitamin B4, though that designation is not official) after the Institute of Medicine formally designated it essential in 1998 and established adequate intake recommendations.

Apigenin is a plant-derived flavone (4',5,7-trihydroxyflavone) that occurs widely in the plant kingdom as a constituent of leaves, flowers, and seeds.

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is the most abundant and biologically active catechin polyphenol in green tea (Camellia sinensis), typically constituting 50-80% of total catechins in dried green tea leaves.

Fisetin is a polyhydroxy flavonoid (3,3',4',7-tetrahydroxyflavone) that has emerged as one of the most extensively studied natural senolytic compounds and a candidate therapy for age-related disease.

Quercetin is a polyhydroxylated flavonoid compound (chemically 3,3',4',5,7-pentahydroxyflavone) that occurs widely in edible plants as both the free aglycone and a family of glycosides including rutin (quercetin-3-O-rutinoside), isoquercitrin (quercetin-3-O-glucoside), quercitrin (quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside), and multiple related sugar-conjugated forms.

Vitamin D is a fat-soluble secosteroid hormone (functionally a hormone rather than a traditional vitamin) with profound and pleiotropic effects across virtually every major organ system.

Vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid) is a water-soluble essential vitamin that humans, unlike most other mammals, cannot synthesize endogenously due to an inactivating mutation in the gulonolactone oxidase (GULO) gene acquired approximately 61 million years ago in a primate ancestor.

Selenium is an essential trace mineral first recognized as toxic in livestock grazing on seleniferous soils in the American West (reported by Kit Carson's expedition in the 1850s) and only later, in 1957, identified as essential for mammalian life when Klaus Schwarz discovered it prevented liver necrosis in rats deficient in the newly-described "Factor 3." The subsequent decades revealed that selenium's essentiality derives from its incorporation into approximately 25 distinct selenoproteins in humans, where it appears as the 21st genetically-encoded amino acid selenocysteine (Sec, U) at specific active sites.

Omega-3 fatty acids represent one of the most thoroughly researched nutritional interventions of the past half-century, with thousands of clinical trials, dozens of major meta-analyses, regulatory approvals for specific pharmaceutical preparations, and foundational status in cardiovascular medicine, cognitive health, and inflammatory conditions.

Vitamin K2 refers to the menaquinone family of fat-soluble vitamins—structurally distinct from but functionally related to vitamin K1 (phylloquinone, found in leafy greens).

Magnesium is the fourth most abundant cation in the human body and the second most abundant intracellular cation after potassium, with approximately 25 grams present in a typical adult—roughly 60% stored in bone, 27% in muscle, 6-7% in other soft tissues, and less than 1% in extracellular fluid including serum.

CJC-1295 No-DAC (also known as Mod GRF 1-29) is a 29-amino-acid synthetic peptide modeled on the active N-terminal fragment of human Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH 1-29).

CJC-1295 with DAC is the long-acting variant of CJC-1295.

Survodutide (BI 456906) is a once-weekly subcutaneous dual GLP-1 / glucagon receptor agonist developed by Boehringer Ingelheim and Zealand Pharma.

Pre-mixed GHRH + GHRP blend for synergistic growth hormone release via dual-receptor stimulation..

GHRP-2 (growth hormone-releasing peptide-2), also known as pralmorelin and KP-102, is a synthetic hexapeptide growth hormone secretagogue that was among the first GHRPs developed in the seminal research of Cyril Bowers and colleagues at Tulane University in the late 1980s and early 1990s.

Sermorelin acetate is a synthetic 29-amino-acid peptide corresponding to the biologically active N-terminal fragment of human growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH 1-29).

GHRP-6 (growth hormone-releasing peptide-6) is a synthetic hexapeptide with the sequence His-D-Trp-Ala-Trp-D-Phe-Lys-NH2 that binds the ghrelin receptor (GHS-R1a) to stimulate endogenous growth hormone release.

MK-677 (also called Ibutamoren or Nutrobal) is an orally-active, non-peptide ghrelin receptor (GHS-R1a) agonist developed by Merck Research Laboratories in the 1990s.

IGF-1 LR3 (Long R3 IGF-1) is a synthetic analog of human insulin-like growth factor 1 modified at two positions to dramatically extend its serum half-life and amplify its tissue bioactivity compared to native IGF-1.

CJC-1295 without DAC (also called Modified GRF 1-29 or MOD-GRF 1-29) is a 30-amino-acid analog of the first 29 residues of endogenous Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH), with four strategic substitutions (D-Ala² for DPP-4 resistance, Gln⁸, Ala¹⁵, Leu²⁷) that extend its plasma half-life from <2 minutes (native GHRH) to ~30 minutes.

Silymarin is the standardized flavonolignan complex extracted from the seeds (technically the fruit, or achenes) of milk thistle — Silybum marianum — a thistle native to the Mediterranean basin now naturalized across Europe, North Africa, North and South America, and Australia.

Grape Seed Extract (GSE) — the lipid-soluble polyphenol-rich concentrate derived from the seeds of the common wine grape (Vitis vinifera, family Vitaceae) — is one of the most widely sold, most extensively researched, and most commercially heterogeneous botanical antioxidant products in the global supplement market.

Beta-sitosterol (β-sitosterol) is the most abundant plant sterol in human diets and nature, structurally similar to cholesterol but with an ethyl group addition at C-24 position, making it a phytosterol rather than a zoosterol.

Piperine is the pungent alkaloid of black pepper (Piper nigrum) — the compound responsible for pepper's characteristic heat and aroma — and it has become one of the single most important adjuvants in the modern supplement industry not because of any direct clinical effect of its own, but because of its notable ability to increase the oral bioavailability of dozens of co-administered drugs, herbs, and nutrients.

Saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) is a small palm native to the southeastern United States whose berries have been used medicinally for over a century for urogenital conditions.

Maitake (Grifola frondosa) is a large, fan-shaped polypore fungus native to the temperate hardwood forests of Japan, China, Korea, and parts of northeastern North America and Europe.

Boswellia — the aromatic gum resin of the tree Boswellia serrata, known in Ayurvedic tradition as Shallaki or Salai guggul and in English as Indian frankincense — is one of the best-characterized non-NSAID anti-inflammatory botanicals in the modern clinical literature, and one of the few whose mechanism is sufficiently well-understood at the molecular level to justify most of its clinical positioning.

Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is a 237-amino-acid glycoprotein hormone produced naturally during pregnancy by trophoblast cells of the developing embryo, beginning as early as 6-8 days after conception and peaking between weeks 8-11 of gestation at concentrations of 50,000-300,000 mIU/mL maternal serum.

DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone) is an endogenous steroid hormone synthesized primarily by the adrenal cortex (zona reticularis), with smaller amounts produced by the gonads and brain.

Enclomiphene citrate (ENC, Androxal, trans-clomiphene) is the pure trans-isomer of clomiphene citrate, a non-steroidal selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) developed originally by Repros Therapeutics for the treatment of secondary (hypogonadotropic) hypogonadism in men who want to preserve fertility.

Combination of triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) thyroid hormones used in research related to metabolic rate and thyroid function..

Oxytocin is a nine-amino-acid cyclic peptide hormone (Cys-Tyr-Ile-Gln-Asn-Cys-Pro-Leu-Gly-NH2) synthesized in magnocellular neurons of the hypothalamic paraventricular (PVN) and supraoptic nuclei (SON), then transported along axons to the posterior pituitary for release into systemic circulation.

Kisspeptin-10 (KP-10, metastin 45-54) is the C-terminal decapeptide fragment of kisspeptin, a neuropeptide product of the KISS1 gene that has emerged over the past two decades as the master regulator of reproductive endocrinology in humans and all other vertebrates studied to date.

Gonadorelin is the synthetic, pharmaceutically manufactured version of endogenous gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) — a ten-amino-acid decapeptide (pGlu-His-Trp-Ser-Tyr-Gly-Leu-Arg-Pro-Gly-NH2) first isolated, sequenced, and synthesized by Andrew V.

LL-37 is the only human cathelicidin, a 37-amino-acid amphipathic alpha-helical peptide (LLGDFFRKSKEKIGKEFKRIVQRIKDFLRNLVPRTES) cleaved from the C-terminus of the 170-amino-acid precursor hCAP-18 (human cationic antimicrobial protein, 18 kDa), which is encoded by the CAMP gene on chromosome 3p21.31.

Thymosin alpha-1 (Tα1) is a 28-amino-acid N-acetylated peptide (N-Ac-Ser-Asp-Ala-Ala-Val-Asp-Thr-Ser-Ser-Glu-Ile-Thr-Thr-Lys-Asp-Leu-Lys-Glu-Lys-Lys-Glu-Val-Val-Glu-Glu-Ala-Glu-Asn) isolated and characterized by Allan Goldstein's laboratory at George Washington University in the 1970s as the immunologically active cleavage product of a larger precursor (prothymosin alpha) found in thymic tissue.

TB-500 is a synthetic peptide fragment of thymosin beta-4 (Tbeta4), a 43-amino-acid protein that is one of the most abundant intracellular actin-sequestering molecules in mammalian cells.

BPC-157 (Body Protection Compound-157) is a synthetic pentadecapeptide consisting of 15 amino acids (Gly-Glu-Pro-Pro-Pro-Gly-Lys-Pro-Ala-Asp-Asp-Ala-Gly-Leu-Val) derived from a partial sequence of human gastric juice protein BPC.

Sulforaphane is an organosulfur compound belonging to the isothiocyanate family, found predominantly in cruciferous vegetables (Brassicaceae family) including broccoli, broccoli sprouts, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, kale, bok choy, and collard greens.

TUDCA (tauroursodeoxycholic acid) is a hydrophilic bile acid formed by taurine conjugation of ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA, the active ingredient in the widely-prescribed cholestasis medication Ursodiol).

NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, oxidized form) is a pyridine dinucleotide coenzyme essential to energy metabolism, DNA repair via PARP enzymes, sirtuin-mediated gene regulation, and calcium signaling via CD38.

Cortagen is a synthetic tetrapeptide (Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly) from the Khavinson bioregulator family developed at the St.

Nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) is a naturally occurring nucleotide derived from ribose and nicotinamide, serving as the direct biosynthetic precursor to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) via a single enzymatic step catalyzed by nicotinamide mononucleotide adenylyltransferase (NMNAT).

Rapamycin is a macrocyclic lactone antibiotic discovered in 1972 in soil samples from Rapa Nui (Easter Island) by a bacteriology survey team investigating indigenous Streptomyces species.

MOTS-c (Mitochondrial ORF of the Twelve S rRNA type-c) is a 16-amino-acid mitochondrial-derived peptide — a member of a recently discovered class of small peptides encoded in mitochondrial DNA rather than nuclear DNA.

Epithalon (also spelled Epitalon, sequence Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly / AEDG) is a synthetic tetrapeptide designed by Prof.

Tadalafil is a selective inhibitor of phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5), an enzyme that hydrolyzes cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) into non-cyclic 5'-GMP.

Berberine is an isoquinoline alkaloid — a naturally occurring plant secondary metabolite with a characteristic yellow color — extracted from the roots, rhizomes, stems, and bark of several plant genera including Berberis (barberry, Oregon grape), Coptis (goldthread), Hydrastis (goldenseal), Phellodendron (Amur cork tree), and Tinospora (guduchi).

Metformin is a biguanide-class oral antihyperglycemic medication that has been in continuous clinical use since 1957 (in France under the brand name Glucophage) and is now the most-prescribed diabetes medication worldwide with over 150 million prescriptions annually.

Semaglutide is a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist (GLP-1 RA) with a molecular weight of 4113.58 Da and CAS number 910463-68-2.

Tirzepatide is a dual glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist with a molecular weight of 4813.45 Da and CAS number 2023788-19-2.

Retatrutide (also coded LY3437943) is an investigational once-weekly triple-agonist at the GLP-1, GIP, and glucagon receptors — the third-generation incretin-based therapy developed by Eli Lilly.

Cagrilintide (also known as AM833, development code NN9838) is a long-acting amylin analog developed by Novo Nordisk as a next-generation weight-management therapy, designed to be co-administered with the GLP-1 receptor agonist semaglutide in a fixed-ratio combination known as CagriSema.

HGH Fragment 176-191 (also written HGH Frag 176-191, hGH Fragment 176-191, and frequently appearing in clinical literature as AOD-9604 — "Anti-Obesity Drug 9604") is a synthetic peptide corresponding to the C-terminal 15-amino-acid region of the 191-amino-acid human growth hormone (hGH) molecule, with an additional N-terminal tyrosine residue added for stability and biological activity.

AOD-9604 (Anti-Obesity Drug 9604) is a synthetic 16-amino-acid peptide fragment of human growth hormone (hGH) corresponding to residues 177-191 of the hGH molecule plus a tyrosine addition at the N-terminus (sequence: Tyr-Leu-Arg-Ile-Val-Gln-Cys-Arg-Ser-Val-Glu-Gly-Ser-Cys-Gly-Phe).

Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the human body — roughly 1,000 to 1,500 grams in a 70 kg adult, with 99% sequestered in the skeleton and teeth as crystalline hydroxyapatite [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2], and the remaining 1% distributed across extracellular fluid, intracellular cytoplasm, mitochondria, and the endoplasmic/sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Chromium is a transition metal that occupies one of the more peculiar positions in human nutrition: long marketed as essential for carbohydrate metabolism and insulin sensitization, the evidence for chromium essentiality has progressively softened over the past two decades, and both the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA 2014) and multiple independent reviews have concluded that chromium III is not definitively essential for humans.

Manganese is an essential trace mineral and redox-active transition metal occupying a peculiar place in human nutrition: absolutely required at milligram doses for mitochondrial antioxidant defense, gluconeogenesis, urea cycle function, and connective tissue synthesis — yet potently neurotoxic at the hundredfold-higher doses encountered occupationally (welders, miners, battery workers) and in patients on long-term parenteral nutrition with inadequately controlled trace mineral content.

Molybdenum is an essential trace mineral that functions as the catalytic metal center of a small but critical set of mammalian enzymes — xanthine oxidase/dehydrogenase, aldehyde oxidase, sulfite oxidase, and mitochondrial amidoxime reducing component (mARC) — all of which carry a shared prosthetic group called the molybdenum cofactor (moco, molybdopterin-Mo complex).

Boron is an ultra-trace element whose nutritional status in humans sits in a distinctive regulatory gray zone: the Institute of Medicine (US) has not established a recommended dietary allowance (RDA) or estimated average requirement (EAR) for boron because the evidence for essentiality in humans does not meet the strict criteria applied to calcium, iron, or zinc, yet the IOM, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), and the World Health Organization (WHO) all set tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) — implicitly acknowledging that boron has biological activity and dose-response safety concerns.

Copper is an essential trace mineral that most adults get in adequate amounts from a varied omnivorous diet — but that routinely drops into functional insufficiency when people take long-term high-dose zinc supplements, consume highly processed diets, undergo bariatric surgery, or use copper-chelating therapies.

SS-31 (elamipretide; MTP-131; formerly Bendavia; chemical sequence D-Arg-Dmt-Lys-Phe-NH2 with dimethyltyrosine at position 2) is a first-in-class aromatic-cationic tetrapeptide designed to selectively target the inner mitochondrial membrane and bind cardiolipin, the signature mitochondrial phospholipid essential for cristae architecture, electron transport chain organization, and respiratory function.

Urolithin A (3,8-dihydroxy-6H-dibenzo[b,d]pyran-6-one; trade name Mitopure from Timeline Nutrition, formerly Amazentis) is a gut-microbiome-derived metabolite of dietary ellagitannins — polyphenolic compounds found in pomegranates, walnuts, strawberries, raspberries, and several other berries.

Follistatin-344 is a 344-amino-acid glycoprotein that binds and neutralizes myostatin (GDF-8) - the primary negative regulator of skeletal muscle growth.

L-Tryptophan is one of the nine essential amino acids — meaning the human body cannot synthesize it and must obtain it from dietary protein — and is the direct metabolic precursor to serotonin, melatonin, and (via a separate route) the vitamin niacin (nicotinamide / NAD+).

Inositol is a naturally-occurring cyclic sugar alcohol (cyclohexanehexol) that functions as a critical structural component of cell membranes and a second-messenger precursor in intracellular signaling.

Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is a natural methylxanthine alkaloid found in the seeds, fruits, leaves, and bark of over 60 plant species — most notably Coffea (coffee), Camellia sinensis (tea), Theobroma cacao (cacao), Paullinia cupana (guaraná), Ilex paraguariensis (yerba mate), and Cola acuminata (kola nut).

Magnesium L-Threonate is a proprietary chelated form of magnesium in which the magnesium cation is bound to L-threonic acid — a metabolite of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) — forming the salt commonly marketed under the brand name Magtein.

CDP-choline (cytidine 5'-diphosphocholine, pharmaceutical name citicoline) is a naturally occurring intracellular intermediate in the Kennedy pathway for phosphatidylcholine synthesis — the primary biochemical route by which all nucleated cells produce the dominant membrane phospholipid.

Alpha-GPC (chemical name L-alpha-glycerylphosphorylcholine; pharmaceutical name choline alfoscerate) is a naturally occurring cholinergic compound that serves as a highly bioavailable precursor to both acetylcholine (the primary neurotransmitter of the cholinergic system, central to learning, memory, attention, and neuromuscular function) and phosphatidylcholine (the principal phospholipid building block of neuronal cell membranes).

Bacopa monnieri is a creeping, succulent-leaved aquatic perennial that grows in wetlands, bogs, and rice paddies across the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, northern Australia, and the southern United States.

Oleamide is a fatty acid primary amide that your brain naturally produces during sleep deprivation — your body's endogenous sleep-promoting lipid signal.

Cerebrolysin is a porcine brain-derived peptide complex developed by EVER Neuro Pharma (Austria) — a low-molecular-weight neurotrophic preparation containing a mixture of free amino acids and bioactive peptides extracted from purified pig brain proteins.

Cortexin is a purified peptide preparation extracted from cattle and pig cerebral cortex tissue — a low-molecular-weight neuropeptide complex used clinically in Russia and Eastern Europe for cognitive impairment, post-stroke recovery, encephalopathy, attention disorders, and pediatric developmental conditions. Like Cerebrolysin, Cortexin is positioned as a broad-spectrum neurotrophic preparation supplying bioactive peptides that mimic endogenous neurotrophic factors.

P-21 is a synthetic cyclic dipeptide — Cyclo(L-prolyl-glycine) — derived from the Selank/Semax C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro motif.

NA-Semax is the N-acetyl-l-aspartyl variant of Semax — the original ACTH(4-7) Pro-Gly-Pro analog developed at the Russian Academy of Sciences in the 1990s.

NA-Semax Amidate is the C-terminally amidated NA-Semax — the carboxylic acid at the peptide's C-terminus is replaced with an amide group (-NH2), which is reported to further extend metabolic half-life by resisting carboxypeptidase cleavage in addition to the aminopeptidase resistance the N-acetyl group already provides. The practical effect is a peptide with dosing-frequency use: where standard Semax often requires 3-4 daily doses to maintain effect, NA-Semax Amidate is reported (in vendor monographs and community usage) to maintain subjective effects on a 1-2x daily schedule.

P-21 Amidate is the amide-modified variant of P-21, the cyclic dipeptide derived from Selank.

Methylene blue (methylthioninium chloride) is a phenothiazine dye with a 150-year pharmacology record.

Uridine monophosphate (UMP, also written 5'-UMP or uridine-5'-monophosphate) is the nucleotide form of uridine, consisting of the pyrimidine base uracil linked to a ribose sugar phosphorylated at the 5' position.

L-Theanine is a non-proteinogenic amino acid found almost exclusively in tea (Camellia sinensis) and a handful of edible mushrooms, and it has become the single most widely-used calm-focus nootropic in the modern supplement market — both on its own at 100-400mg doses and, even more prominently, as the classic 1:1 or 2:1 pair with caffeine that defines the "calm-focus" experiential signature of green tea and of virtually every serious nootropic stack.

Lion's Mane (scientific name Hericium erinaceus; also known as yamabushitake in Japanese, houtou in Chinese, bearded tooth fungus, monkey head mushroom, and pom pom mushroom) is a white-to-cream coloured edible and medicinal mushroom in the tooth fungus family (Hericiaceae), characterised by its distinctive cascading spines that resemble a lion's mane or white cascading icicles.

Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide (Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro, MEHFPGP, 813 Da molecular weight) developed at the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences in the 1980s.

Noopept is the common brand and research name for N-phenylacetyl-L-prolylglycine ethyl ester (GVS-111; INN omberacetam), a small dipeptide nootropic developed in the 1990s at the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences' Institute of Pharmacology under Tatiana Voronina and Rita Ostrovskaya.

B7-33 is a single-chain, 26-amino-acid peptide engineered as a functionally selective agonist of the relaxin family peptide receptor 1 (RXFP1), designed to recapitulate the therapeutic activity of human H2 relaxin — the endogenous peptide hormone that is naturally elevated during pregnancy and has broad cardioprotective, vasodilatory, and anti-fibrotic effects.

RU-58841 (also known as PSK-3841 or HMR-3841, and commonly written simply as RU in hair-loss forums) is a non-steroidal androgen receptor antagonist originally developed by Roussel Uclaf (later absorbed into Sanofi) in the late 1980s and early 1990s.

Aminotadalafil is an unapproved research analog of tadalafil, the PDE5 inhibitor marketed under the brand name Cialis for erectile dysfunction and under Adcirca for pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Prostamax is a short synthetic peptide developed in Russia by Vladimir Khavinson and collaborators at the St.

Testagen is a short peptide bioregulator developed inside Vladimir Khavinson's laboratory at the Saint Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology and marketed in Russia as an oral capsule intended to support the male reproductive system — principally the testes, spermatogenesis, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis.

KSPTN is a novel research peptide available from select peptide research vendors.

Thymalin is a thymus-derived peptide complex developed in the 1970s by Vladimir Khavinson and the Leningrad (now St.

ITPP (myo-inositol trispyrophosphate, sometimes written myo-inositol tripyrophosphate or OXY111A in NormOxys trial documents) is a small-molecule allosteric effector of hemoglobin designed to increase the amount of oxygen red blood cells release to tissues.

SLU-PP-332 is the first-generation synthetic pan-agonist of the estrogen-related receptors (ERRα, ERRβ, ERRγ) developed by the laboratory of Thomas Burris at Saint Louis University and reported in a landmark 2023 publication that established ERR pan-agonism as a pharmacologically tractable exercise-mimetic drug mechanism.

PEG-MGF (Pegylated Mechano Growth Factor) is a synthetic, PEGylated form of Mechano Growth Factor (MGF) — an alternatively spliced variant of IGF-1 produced locally in muscle and other tissues in response to mechanical loading or damage.

Clascoterone (brand name Winlevi; development codes CB-03-01 and, for the alopecia formulation, Breezula) is a first-in-class topical androgen receptor (AR) antagonist approved by the U.S.

Finasteride is an orally-active selective type II 5α-reductase inhibitor that blocks the conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone (DHT), the primary androgenic driver of both benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and androgenetic alopecia (male-pattern hair loss).

Spermidine is a naturally-occurring polyamine essential for cellular growth, division, and differentiation in all living organisms.

Oleuropein is the signature secoiridoid glycoside of Olea europaea — the olive tree — and it is the single most important polyphenol responsible for the cardiovascular, anti-inflammatory, and metabolic benefits long associated with extra-virgin olive oil and with the broader Mediterranean diet.

Hydroxytyrosol (3,4-dihydroxyphenylethanol, abbreviated HT or 3,4-DHPEA) is the smallest of the natural phenolic compounds produced by the olive tree and — pharmacologically — the single most important molecule in the olive polyphenol family.

Oleocanthal — more precisely (-)-oleocanthal, or p-HPEA-EDA (para-hydroxyphenylethanol elenolic acid dialdehyde) — is the pungent phenolic secoiridoid that gives fresh, high-polyphenol extra-virgin olive oil its characteristic throat-biting, pepper-like sensation when swallowed.

Hesperidin is the signature flavanone glycoside of citrus fruit — specifically the 7-O-rutinoside of hesperetin — and it is the single most abundant flavonoid in the white pith and peel of sweet oranges, lemons, tangerines, and grapefruit.

Collagen peptides — also sold as hydrolyzed collagen, collagen hydrolysate, or simply "collagen powder" — are low-molecular-weight protein fragments (typically 2-10 kilodaltons, averaging around 3-6 kDa for most commercial products) produced by enzymatic hydrolysis of animal collagen.

Glutathione is the body's most abundant intracellular antioxidant — a three-amino-acid peptide made of glutamate, cysteine, and glycine (Glu-Cys-Gly), present in millimolar concentrations inside every cell of your body.

Humanin is a 24-amino-acid peptide (MAPRGFSCLLLLTSEIDLPVKRRA) encoded within the mitochondrial 16S ribosomal RNA gene and translated from a short open reading frame that was not recognized as biologically active until 2001, when Hashimoto and colleagues identified it in a screen for factors that protect neurons from Alzheimer's disease-associated toxicity (Hashimoto et al., 2001).

Thymogen (also transliterated Timogen or ╨ó╨╕╨╝╨╛╨│╨╡╨╜) is a synthetic dipeptide — glutamyl-tryptophan (Glu-Trp, or EW) — developed by the St Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology under Professor Vladimir Khavinson.

Vilon is the simplest member of Vladimir Khavinson's short-peptide bioregulator catalog — a dipeptide of lysine and glutamic acid (H-Lys-Glu-OH, abbreviated KE).

ARA-290, also known as Cibinetide or pHBSP (Helix B Surface Peptide), is an 11-amino-acid peptide — QEQLERALNSS — designed to mimic a specific region of the tissue-protective surface of erythropoietin (EPO) without activating the classical hematopoietic EPO receptor that drives red blood cell production.

KPV is a three-amino-acid peptide — Lysine-Proline-Valine — that makes up the C-terminal tail of alpha-MSH (alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone).

Kisspeptin-10 is a 10-amino-acid C-terminal fragment of the KISS1 gene product.

Dasatinib (SPRYCEL) is a second-generation oral tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) with FDA approvals for chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) and Philadelphia chromosome-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia (Ph+ ALL).

Acetyl Hexapeptide-8 (INCI: Acetyl Hexapeptide-3 in older nomenclature, commercially known as Argireline) is a synthetic hexapeptide designed as a competitive inhibitor of the SNARE complex at the neuromuscular junction.

AHK-Cu (Ala-His-Lys-Copper) is a copper chelating tripeptide related to but distinct from GHK-Cu (Gly-His-Lys-Copper).

A synthetic melanocortin receptor agonist studied for skin tanning, sexual function, and appetite suppression..

FDA-approved topical vasodilator used for hair regrowth.

PDRN (Polydeoxyribonucleotide) is a biotechnological compound derived from salmon sperm DNA (Oncorhynchus mykiss) through extraction, purification, and fractionation.

Snap-8 (INCI: Acetyl Glutamyl Heptapeptide-1) is a synthetic octapeptide designed as an analog of the N-terminal fragment of synaptosomal-associated protein of 25 kDa (SNAP-25), which is the molecular target of botulinum toxin A (Botox).

Synthetic peptide analog of alpha-MSH for tanning..

PT-141 (bremelanotide) is a cyclic 7-amino-acid synthetic melanocortin receptor agonist that acts centrally in the brain — not peripherally on genital tissue — to improve sexual desire, arousal, and responsiveness.

Melanotan-II (MT-II) is a synthetic cyclic heptapeptide analog of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) engineered in the late 1980s by researchers at the University of Arizona, most prominently Mac Hadley and Victor Hruby, who were searching for a way to stimulate skin pigmentation pharmacologically as a potential skin-cancer prophylactic.

GHK-Cu (copper peptide, glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine:copper(II)) is a naturally occurring tripeptide-copper complex with the amino acid sequence Gly-His-Lys chelated to a copper(II) ion.

Proprietary nasal spray blend designed to support deep sleep and recovery..

Melatonin (chemical name N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine) is an endogenous neurohormone synthesized primarily by the pineal gland and, in smaller quantities, by the retina, gut, skin, bone marrow, lymphocytes, and mitochondria across most tissues.

Pterostilbene is a naturally-occurring stilbene polyphenol (trans-3,5-dimethoxy-4'-hydroxystilbene) that is structurally and functionally related to resveratrol but has substantially superior pharmacokinetic properties.

Probiotics — defined by the joint FAO/WHO 2001 consensus as "live microorganisms which, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host" — are the most widely sold and most widely misunderstood category of dietary supplement.

Bacteriostatic water used for reconstituting lyophilized peptide vials.

Melanotan-1 (afamelanotide, brand name Scenesse) is a synthetic analog of alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (alpha-MSH).

Vitamin A is the fat-soluble vitamin family encompassing three interconvertible oxidation states — retinol (the alcohol form, the primary transport and storage species), retinal (the aldehyde, the vision-critical form), and retinoic acid (the carboxylic acid, the nuclear receptor ligand) — along with the provitamin A carotenoids, chiefly β-carotene, that plants use to provide animals a dietary precursor.

Vitamin E is the collective name for eight naturally occurring fat-soluble molecules — four tocopherols (α, β, γ, δ) and four tocotrienols (α, β, γ, δ) — sharing a chromanol head group and a 16-carbon isoprenoid side chain.

Pantothenic acid is the water-soluble B-complex vitamin — officially vitamin B5 — that every aerobic cell on the planet converts into Coenzyme A (CoA) and the 4'-phosphopantetheine prosthetic arm of acyl carrier protein (ACP).

Biotin (vitamin B7, also called vitamin H from the German Haut for "skin" and historically named coenzyme R, factor W, factor R, factor X, vitamin Bw, or Bios II in various discovery-era nomenclatures) is a water-soluble vitamin that serves as the covalently-attached prosthetic group for five carboxylase enzymes in human metabolism: pyruvate carboxylase, acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1, acetyl-CoA carboxylase 2, propionyl-CoA carboxylase, and 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase.

Folate is the generic term for a family of water-soluble B-vitamin compounds that share a pteridine-para-aminobenzoic-acid-glutamate backbone and serve as single-carbon transfer cofactors in nucleotide synthesis, amino acid metabolism, and methylation.

Niacin (vitamin B3) is an umbrella name for a family of closely related vitamers that share the same ultimate metabolic fate — conversion to the pyridine nucleotide coenzymes NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and NADP+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) that serve as the central electron carriers of intermediary metabolism and as substrates for an expanding family of NAD-consuming enzymes (sirtuins, PARPs, CD38, SARM1).

L-Carnitine is a naturally occurring quaternary ammonium compound synthesized in the body from the amino acids lysine and methionine, with essential cofactor roles in fatty acid metabolism, energy production, and cellular health.

BAM15 is a small-molecule mitochondrial protonophore uncoupler that was first described in 2014 as a tool compound for dissipating proton motive force selectively across the inner mitochondrial membrane without collapsing the plasma membrane electrochemical gradient (Kenwood et al., 2014).

Tesofensine (NS2330) is an orally-administered small-molecule triple monoamine reuptake inhibitor — it blocks the reuptake of noradrenaline, dopamine, and serotonin, placing it in the same broad pharmacologic class as sibutramine (withdrawn 2010 for cardiovascular risk) but with a different receptor-affinity profile and markedly longer half-life.

Mazdutide (also known as IBI362, Lilly compound LY3305677) is a dual glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucagon receptor agonist originally discovered by Eli Lilly and exclusively licensed to Innovent Biologics in 2019 for development and commercialization in Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan.

5-Amino-1MQ (5-amino-1-methylquinolinium iodide) is a small-molecule inhibitor of nicotinamide N-methyltransferase (NNMT), an enzyme that transfers a methyl group from S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) to nicotinamide to form 1-methylnicotinamide (1-MNA) and S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine (SAH).

GLP-1 receptor agonist used for metabolic effect and appetite regulation..

Gotu Kola (Centella asiatica) is one of the oldest and most extensively studied rasayana herbs in Ayurveda — a classical medhya (mind-nourishing) plant that has been used for more than 3,000 years across India, Sri Lanka, China, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, and Madagascar for three main purposes: sharpening cognition and memory, healing wounds and damaged connective tissue, and restoring venous and microvascular circulation.

Hawthorn (Crataegus species — principally Crataegus monogyna, C.

Horny Goat Weed — also called Epimedium, Yin Yang Huo (µ╖½τ╛èΦù┐) in Traditional Chinese Medicine, and barrenwort or bishop's hat in Western botanical nomenclature — is a genus of flowering plants in the Berberidaceae family, with roughly 60 species concentrated in China, Korea, and Japan, of which Epimedium sagittatum, E.

Mucuna pruriens — known as velvet bean in English, Kapikacchu (αñòαñ¬αñ┐αñòαñÜαÑìαñ¢αÑé) or Atmagupta in Sanskrit, Kauchni or Kaunch in Hindi, and cowitch or cowhage in older Western materia medica — is one of the most pharmacologically unusual legumes on earth and one of the very few medicinal plants whose primary active constituent is a well-characterized pharmaceutical drug rather than a complex phytochemical mixture.

Collagen peptides — also sold as hydrolyzed collagen, collagen hydrolysate, or simply "collagen powder" — are low-molecular-weight protein fragments (typically 2-10 kilodaltons, averaging around 3-6 kDa for most commercial products) produced by enzymatic hydrolysis of animal collagen.

Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the human body — roughly 1,000 to 1,500 grams in a 70 kg adult, with 99% sequestered in the skeleton and teeth as crystalline hydroxyapatite [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2], and the remaining 1% distributed across extracellular fluid, intracellular cytoplasm, mitochondria, and the endoplasmic/sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Grape Seed Extract (GSE) — the lipid-soluble polyphenol-rich concentrate derived from the seeds of the common wine grape (Vitis vinifera, family Vitaceae) — is one of the most widely sold, most extensively researched, and most commercially heterogeneous botanical antioxidant products in the global supplement market.

Glutathione is the body's most abundant intracellular antioxidant — a three-amino-acid peptide made of glutamate, cysteine, and glycine (Glu-Cys-Gly), present in millimolar concentrations inside every cell of your body.

Vitamin A is the fat-soluble vitamin family encompassing three interconvertible oxidation states — retinol (the alcohol form, the primary transport and storage species), retinal (the aldehyde, the vision-critical form), and retinoic acid (the carboxylic acid, the nuclear receptor ligand) — along with the provitamin A carotenoids, chiefly β-carotene, that plants use to provide animals a dietary precursor.

Probiotics — defined by the joint FAO/WHO 2001 consensus as "live microorganisms which, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host" — are the most widely sold and most widely misunderstood category of dietary supplement.

Chromium is a transition metal that occupies one of the more peculiar positions in human nutrition: long marketed as essential for carbohydrate metabolism and insulin sensitization, the evidence for chromium essentiality has progressively softened over the past two decades, and both the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA 2014) and multiple independent reviews have concluded that chromium III is not definitively essential for humans.

Manganese is an essential trace mineral and redox-active transition metal occupying a peculiar place in human nutrition: absolutely required at milligram doses for mitochondrial antioxidant defense, gluconeogenesis, urea cycle function, and connective tissue synthesis — yet potently neurotoxic at the hundredfold-higher doses encountered occupationally (welders, miners, battery workers) and in patients on long-term parenteral nutrition with inadequately controlled trace mineral content.

L-Tryptophan is one of the nine essential amino acids — meaning the human body cannot synthesize it and must obtain it from dietary protein — and is the direct metabolic precursor to serotonin, melatonin, and (via a separate route) the vitamin niacin (nicotinamide / NAD+).

Molybdenum is an essential trace mineral that functions as the catalytic metal center of a small but critical set of mammalian enzymes — xanthine oxidase/dehydrogenase, aldehyde oxidase, sulfite oxidase, and mitochondrial amidoxime reducing component (mARC) — all of which carry a shared prosthetic group called the molybdenum cofactor (moco, molybdopterin-Mo complex).

NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, oxidized form) is a pyridine dinucleotide coenzyme essential to energy metabolism, DNA repair via PARP enzymes, sirtuin-mediated gene regulation, and calcium signaling via CD38.

Tribulus terrestris (scientific name Tribulus terrestris L.; also called puncture vine, caltrop, goat's head, devil's thorn, bindii in Australia, gokshura or gokhru in Sanskrit and Ayurveda, and ci ji li (σê║ΦÆ║Φù£) in Traditional Chinese Medicine) is a low-growing annual herb of the family Zygophyllaceae with a remarkably cosmopolitan distribution — native to warm temperate and tropical regions of Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia, and introduced as an invasive weed across the Americas.

Boron is an ultra-trace element whose nutritional status in humans sits in a distinctive regulatory gray zone: the Institute of Medicine (US) has not established a recommended dietary allowance (RDA) or estimated average requirement (EAR) for boron because the evidence for essentiality in humans does not meet the strict criteria applied to calcium, iron, or zinc, yet the IOM, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), and the World Health Organization (WHO) all set tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) — implicitly acknowledging that boron has biological activity and dose-response safety concerns.

Vitamin E is the collective name for eight naturally occurring fat-soluble molecules — four tocopherols (α, β, γ, δ) and four tocotrienols (α, β, γ, δ) — sharing a chromanol head group and a 16-carbon isoprenoid side chain.

Inositol is a naturally-occurring cyclic sugar alcohol (cyclohexanehexol) that functions as a critical structural component of cell membranes and a second-messenger precursor in intracellular signaling.

Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine) is a natural methylxanthine alkaloid found in the seeds, fruits, leaves, and bark of over 60 plant species — most notably Coffea (coffee), Camellia sinensis (tea), Theobroma cacao (cacao), Paullinia cupana (guaraná), Ilex paraguariensis (yerba mate), and Cola acuminata (kola nut).

Dong Quai (scientific name Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels; also spelled Dang Gui, Tang Kuei, or Dong Kwai; Chinese σ╜ôσ╜Æ / τò╢µ¡╕) is a perennial herb of the family Apiaceae (the carrot, parsley, and celery family — notable for containing many fragrant, volatile-oil-rich medicinal plants) native to the cool, high-altitude regions of central and northwestern China, particularly Gansu Province (the Min County region is traditionally considered the premium cultivation area), Yunnan, Sichuan, Shaanxi, and Hubei provinces.

Melatonin (chemical name N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine) is an endogenous neurohormone synthesized primarily by the pineal gland and, in smaller quantities, by the retina, gut, skin, bone marrow, lymphocytes, and mitochondria across most tissues.

Lutein is a dihydroxy-xanthophyll carotenoid that functions as the primary blue-light-absorbing, antioxidant macular pigment of the human retina, where along with its stereoisomers zeaxanthin and meso-zeaxanthin it concentrates selectively in the central macula at concentrations exceeding 1,000 times those found in any other body tissue.

Methylene blue (methylthioninium chloride) is a phenothiazine dye with a 150-year pharmacology record.

L-Carnitine is a naturally occurring quaternary ammonium compound synthesized in the body from the amino acids lysine and methionine, with essential cofactor roles in fatty acid metabolism, energy production, and cellular health.

DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone) is an endogenous steroid hormone synthesized primarily by the adrenal cortex (zona reticularis), with smaller amounts produced by the gonads and brain.

Beta-sitosterol (β-sitosterol) is the most abundant plant sterol in human diets and nature, structurally similar to cholesterol but with an ethyl group addition at C-24 position, making it a phytosterol rather than a zoosterol.

Pantothenic acid is the water-soluble B-complex vitamin — officially vitamin B5 — that every aerobic cell on the planet converts into Coenzyme A (CoA) and the 4'-phosphopantetheine prosthetic arm of acyl carrier protein (ACP).

Panax ginseng is the canonical Asian adaptogen, the compound that gave "ginseng" its name in the global supplement lexicon, and the most extensively studied herbal medicine in the Asian pharmacopeia.

Silymarin is the standardized flavonolignan complex extracted from the seeds (technically the fruit, or achenes) of milk thistle — Silybum marianum — a thistle native to the Mediterranean basin now naturalized across Europe, North Africa, North and South America, and Australia.

Uridine monophosphate (UMP, also written 5'-UMP or uridine-5'-monophosphate) is the nucleotide form of uridine, consisting of the pyrimidine base uracil linked to a ribose sugar phosphorylated at the 5' position.

Astaxanthin is a red-orange keto-carotenoid xanthophyll, chemically classified as a 3,3''-dihydroxy-beta,beta-carotene-4,4''-dione.

Oleuropein is the signature secoiridoid glycoside of Olea europaea — the olive tree — and it is the single most important polyphenol responsible for the cardiovascular, anti-inflammatory, and metabolic benefits long associated with extra-virgin olive oil and with the broader Mediterranean diet.

Semaglutide is a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist (GLP-1 RA) with a molecular weight of 4113.58 Da and CAS number 910463-68-2.

LL-37 is the only human cathelicidin, a 37-amino-acid amphipathic alpha-helical peptide (LLGDFFRKSKEKIGKEFKRIVQRIKDFLRNLVPRTES) cleaved from the C-terminus of the 170-amino-acid precursor hCAP-18 (human cationic antimicrobial protein, 18 kDa), which is encoded by the CAMP gene on chromosome 3p21.31.

Hydroxytyrosol (3,4-dihydroxyphenylethanol, abbreviated HT or 3,4-DHPEA) is the smallest of the natural phenolic compounds produced by the olive tree and — pharmacologically — the single most important molecule in the olive polyphenol family.

Piperine is the pungent alkaloid of black pepper (Piper nigrum) — the compound responsible for pepper's characteristic heat and aroma — and it has become one of the single most important adjuvants in the modern supplement industry not because of any direct clinical effect of its own, but because of its notable ability to increase the oral bioavailability of dozens of co-administered drugs, herbs, and nutrients.

Pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ, methoxatin) is a small tricyclic o-quinone originally discovered in 1964 as the prosthetic group of bacterial methanol dehydrogenase.

L-Theanine is a non-proteinogenic amino acid found almost exclusively in tea (Camellia sinensis) and a handful of edible mushrooms, and it has become the single most widely-used calm-focus nootropic in the modern supplement market — both on its own at 100-400mg doses and, even more prominently, as the classic 1:1 or 2:1 pair with caffeine that defines the "calm-focus" experiential signature of green tea and of virtually every serious nootropic stack.

Clascoterone (brand name Winlevi; development codes CB-03-01 and, for the alopecia formulation, Breezula) is a first-in-class topical androgen receptor (AR) antagonist approved by the U.S.

Oleocanthal — more precisely (-)-oleocanthal, or p-HPEA-EDA (para-hydroxyphenylethanol elenolic acid dialdehyde) — is the pungent phenolic secoiridoid that gives fresh, high-polyphenol extra-virgin olive oil its characteristic throat-biting, pepper-like sensation when swallowed.

Fadogia agrestis (also sometimes called "Black Aphrodisiac" or "West African Aphrodisiac" in English-language supplement marketing; bakin gagai in Hausa; and historically known by various regional names across its native range) is a flowering shrub of the family Rubiaceae (the coffee and cinchona family) native to the savanna regions of tropical West and Central Africa — with documented distribution across Nigeria, Sudan, Cameroon, Chad, Senegal, Burkina Faso, and surrounding countries.

TB-500 is a synthetic peptide fragment of thymosin beta-4 (Tbeta4), a 43-amino-acid protein that is one of the most abundant intracellular actin-sequestering molecules in mammalian cells.

Kisspeptin-10 is a 10-amino-acid C-terminal fragment of the KISS1 gene product.

Reishi (scientific name Ganoderma lucidum, though the species most commonly cultivated and studied in East Asia is now properly recognized as Ganoderma lingzhi following a 2012 taxonomic revision) is a polypore mushroom known in Chinese as lingzhi (靈芝, "spirit plant" or "mushroom of immortality"), in Japanese as reishi (霊芝) or mannentake ("10,000-year mushroom"), in Korean as yeongji (영지), and in Vietnamese as linh chi.

Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera, also called "Indian ginseng" and "winter cherry") is the most studied and most clinically validated herbal adaptogen in the contemporary supplement market.

Schisandra (scientific name Schisandra chinensis; called wu wei zi in Chinese, literally "five-flavor fruit" — referring to the berry's unique property of exhibiting all five basic tastes simultaneously: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and pungent/spicy — omija in Korean, and gomishi in Japanese) is a deciduous woody vine native to the cold temperate forests of Northeast China, Korea, eastern Russia (particularly the Russian Far East, Primorsky region, and parts of Siberia), and Japan, producing distinctive bright-red berries in dense clusters during late summer and autumn.

Cordyceps is a genus of parasitic fungi (order Hypocreales, family Cordycipitaceae) historically prized in traditional Tibetan, Chinese, and Bhutanese medicine for their purported abilities to restore vitality, improve athletic performance, support respiratory and kidney function, and promote longevity.

Saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) is a small palm native to the southeastern United States whose berries have been used medicinally for over a century for urogenital conditions.

Maitake (Grifola frondosa) is a large, fan-shaped polypore fungus native to the temperate hardwood forests of Japan, China, Korea, and parts of northeastern North America and Europe.

Thymosin alpha-1 (Tα1) is a 28-amino-acid N-acetylated peptide (N-Ac-Ser-Asp-Ala-Ala-Val-Asp-Thr-Ser-Ser-Glu-Ile-Thr-Thr-Lys-Asp-Leu-Lys-Glu-Lys-Lys-Glu-Val-Val-Glu-Glu-Ala-Glu-Asn) isolated and characterized by Allan Goldstein's laboratory at George Washington University in the 1970s as the immunologically active cleavage product of a larger precursor (prothymosin alpha) found in thymic tissue.

Rhodiola rosea is a succulent perennial plant that grows in cold, high-altitude regions of the Arctic, Siberia, Scandinavia, Iceland, the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Carpathian Mountains.

Tirzepatide is a dual glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist with a molecular weight of 4813.45 Da and CAS number 2023788-19-2.

Oxytocin is a nine-amino-acid cyclic peptide hormone (Cys-Tyr-Ile-Gln-Asn-Cys-Pro-Leu-Gly-NH2) synthesized in magnocellular neurons of the hypothalamic paraventricular (PVN) and supraoptic nuclei (SON), then transported along axons to the posterior pituitary for release into systemic circulation.

Kisspeptin-10 (KP-10, metastin 45-54) is the C-terminal decapeptide fragment of kisspeptin, a neuropeptide product of the KISS1 gene that has emerged over the past two decades as the master regulator of reproductive endocrinology in humans and all other vertebrates studied to date.

Lion's Mane (scientific name Hericium erinaceus; also known as yamabushitake in Japanese, houtou in Chinese, bearded tooth fungus, monkey head mushroom, and pom pom mushroom) is a white-to-cream coloured edible and medicinal mushroom in the tooth fungus family (Hericiaceae), characterised by its distinctive cascading spines that resemble a lion's mane or white cascading icicles.

Delta sleep-inducing peptide (DSIP) is a nonapeptide — a 9-amino-acid neuropeptide with sequence Trp-Ala-Gly-Gly-Asp-Ala-Ser-Gly-Glu (WAGGDASGE, 848 Da molecular weight) — first isolated in 1977 from the cerebral venous blood of rabbits subjected to electrical stimulation of the intralaminar thalamus, a brain region involved in sleep regulation.

Astragalus (scientific name Astragalus membranaceus, also classified as Astragalus mongholicus or Astragalus propinquus; called Huang Qi / Θ╗äΦè¬ in Mandarin Chinese — literally "yellow leader" referring to the yellow interior of the root; known in Western herbalism as milk vetch root or simply astragalus root; Radix Astragali in pharmacopeial Latin) is a perennial legume in the Fabaceae family (pea family), native to northern and northeastern China, Mongolia, Korea, and Siberia.

Gonadorelin is the synthetic, pharmaceutically manufactured version of endogenous gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) — a ten-amino-acid decapeptide (pGlu-His-Trp-Ser-Tyr-Gly-Leu-Arg-Pro-Gly-NH2) first isolated, sequenced, and synthesized by Andrew V.

Hesperidin is the signature flavanone glycoside of citrus fruit — specifically the 7-O-rutinoside of hesperetin — and it is the single most abundant flavonoid in the white pith and peel of sweet oranges, lemons, tangerines, and grapefruit.

Follistatin-344 is a 344-amino-acid glycoprotein that binds and neutralizes myostatin (GDF-8) - the primary negative regulator of skeletal muscle growth.

Bacopa monnieri is a creeping, succulent-leaved aquatic perennial that grows in wetlands, bogs, and rice paddies across the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, northern Australia, and the southern United States.

Tulsi (scientific name Ocimum tenuiflorum, formerly classified as Ocimum sanctum; called tulasi in Sanskrit and most Indian languages, holy basil or sacred basil in Western herbalism, and kala tulsi or manjari for specific varieties) is a perennial aromatic herb in the Lamiaceae family (mint family), native to the Indian subcontinent but now cultivated throughout tropical and subtropical regions worldwide.

Eleuthero (scientific name Eleutherococcus senticosus, formerly classified as Acanthopanax senticosus; called ci wu jia in Chinese, siberian ginseng in Western herbalism — though this common name is problematic and technically inaccurate as eleuthero is NOT in the Panax genus of true ginsengs — devil's shrub or touch-me-not in some English sources, and russian root reflecting its extensive Russian use) is a deciduous shrub in the Araliaceae family (ivy family), growing 2-3 meters tall with spiny stems, native to the cold temperate forests of the Russian Far East (Primorsky and Khabarovsk regions, Amur and Ussuri river basins), Northeast China, Korea, and Hokkaido Japan.

Humanin is a 24-amino-acid peptide (MAPRGFSCLLLLTSEIDLPVKRRA) encoded within the mitochondrial 16S ribosomal RNA gene and translated from a short open reading frame that was not recognized as biologically active until 2001, when Hashimoto and colleagues identified it in a screen for factors that protect neurons from Alzheimer's disease-associated toxicity (Hashimoto et al., 2001).

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) is the North American cousin of Asian ginseng (Panax ginseng), native to the cool, shaded hardwood forests of the eastern United States and southeastern Canada.

BPC-157 (Body Protection Compound-157) is a synthetic pentadecapeptide consisting of 15 amino acids (Gly-Glu-Pro-Pro-Pro-Gly-Lys-Pro-Ala-Asp-Asp-Ala-Gly-Leu-Val) derived from a partial sequence of human gastric juice protein BPC.

GHRP-2 (growth hormone-releasing peptide-2), also known as pralmorelin and KP-102, is a synthetic hexapeptide growth hormone secretagogue that was among the first GHRPs developed in the seminal research of Cyril Bowers and colleagues at Tulane University in the late 1980s and early 1990s.

Magnesium L-Threonate is a proprietary chelated form of magnesium in which the magnesium cation is bound to L-threonic acid — a metabolite of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) — forming the salt commonly marketed under the brand name Magtein.

Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide (Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro, MEHFPGP, 813 Da molecular weight) developed at the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences in the 1980s.

Boswellia — the aromatic gum resin of the tree Boswellia serrata, known in Ayurvedic tradition as Shallaki or Salai guggul and in English as Indian frankincense — is one of the best-characterized non-NSAID anti-inflammatory botanicals in the modern clinical literature, and one of the few whose mechanism is sufficiently well-understood at the molecular level to justify most of its clinical positioning.

Sermorelin acetate is a synthetic 29-amino-acid peptide corresponding to the biologically active N-terminal fragment of human growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH 1-29).

MOTS-c (Mitochondrial ORF of the Twelve S rRNA type-c) is a 16-amino-acid mitochondrial-derived peptide — a member of a recently discovered class of small peptides encoded in mitochondrial DNA rather than nuclear DNA.

GHRP-6 (growth hormone-releasing peptide-6) is a synthetic hexapeptide with the sequence His-D-Trp-Ala-Trp-D-Phe-Lys-NH2 that binds the ghrelin receptor (GHS-R1a) to stimulate endogenous growth hormone release.

Retatrutide (also coded LY3437943) is an investigational once-weekly triple-agonist at the GLP-1, GIP, and glucagon receptors — the third-generation incretin-based therapy developed by Eli Lilly.

Tongkat Ali (scientific name Eurycoma longifolia; also called Longjack, Malaysian ginseng, pasak bumi in Indonesian/Malay, tung saw in Thai, and literally "Ali's walking stick" in Malay — a reference to the remarkably long, straight, single taproot that can grow 10-15 feet deep into Southeast Asian rainforest soil) is a slender understory tree of the family Simaroubaceae native to the tropical rainforests of peninsular Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, Myanmar, Laos, and the Philippines.

Noopept is the common brand and research name for N-phenylacetyl-L-prolylglycine ethyl ester (GVS-111; INN omberacetam), a small dipeptide nootropic developed in the 1990s at the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences' Institute of Pharmacology under Tatiana Voronina and Rita Ostrovskaya.

P-21 (also written P021, or Peptide 021) is a synthetic peptidergic compound derived from the neurotrophic region of ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), designed to activate neurogenic and BDNF-producing pathways in the adult brain without triggering the activation of the CNTF receptor that causes the undesirable side effects (cachexia, muscle wasting) that limited CNTF itself as a therapeutic.

Enclomiphene citrate (ENC, Androxal, trans-clomiphene) is the pure trans-isomer of clomiphene citrate, a non-steroidal selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) developed originally by Repros Therapeutics for the treatment of secondary (hypogonadotropic) hypogonadism in men who want to preserve fertility.

Thymogen (also transliterated Timogen or ╨ó╨╕╨╝╨╛╨│╨╡╨╜) is a synthetic dipeptide — glutamyl-tryptophan (Glu-Trp, or EW) — developed by the St Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology under Professor Vladimir Khavinson.

Selank is a synthetic heptapeptide (Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro, 750 Da molecular weight) developed in the 1990s at the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences as a synthetic analog of tuftsin — an immunomodulatory tetrapeptide (Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg) that is naturally cleaved from the Fc region of immunoglobulin G.

Vitamin D is a fat-soluble secosteroid hormone (functionally a hormone rather than a traditional vitamin) with profound and pleiotropic effects across virtually every major organ system.

Cerebrolysin is a porcine brain-derived peptide complex developed by EVER Neuro Pharma (Austria) — a low-molecular-weight neurotrophic preparation containing a mixture of free amino acids and bioactive peptides extracted from purified pig brain proteins.

Theacrine (1,3,7,9-tetramethyluric acid) is a purine alkaloid structurally related to caffeine, found naturally in Camellia assamica var.

Vilon is the simplest member of Vladimir Khavinson's short-peptide bioregulator catalog — a dipeptide of lysine and glutamic acid (H-Lys-Glu-OH, abbreviated KE).

Maca (scientific name Lepidium meyenii; called maca in Spanish and Quechua; historically ayak chichira or ayuk willku in pre-Columbian Andean languages; marketed as Peruvian Ginseng in some Western commerce — though it is botanically unrelated to true ginseng from the Araliaceae family) is an annual herbaceous plant in the Brassicaceae (mustard/cabbage) family.

Oleamide is a fatty acid primary amide that your brain naturally produces during sleep deprivation — your body's endogenous sleep-promoting lipid signal.

Survodutide (BI 456906) is a once-weekly subcutaneous dual GLP-1 / glucagon receptor agonist developed by Boehringer Ingelheim and Zealand Pharma.

BAM15 is a small-molecule mitochondrial protonophore uncoupler that was first described in 2014 as a tool compound for dissipating proton motive force selectively across the inner mitochondrial membrane without collapsing the plasma membrane electrochemical gradient (Kenwood et al., 2014).

CDP-choline (cytidine 5'-diphosphocholine, pharmaceutical name citicoline) is a naturally occurring intracellular intermediate in the Kennedy pathway for phosphatidylcholine synthesis — the primary biochemical route by which all nucleated cells produce the dominant membrane phospholipid.

Tesofensine (NS2330) is an orally-administered small-molecule triple monoamine reuptake inhibitor — it blocks the reuptake of noradrenaline, dopamine, and serotonin, placing it in the same broad pharmacologic class as sibutramine (withdrawn 2010 for cardiovascular risk) but with a different receptor-affinity profile and markedly longer half-life.

Pygeum (Prunus africana, formerly classified as Pygeum africanum) is a lipophilic bark extract derived from the African cherry tree — a large, slow-growing evergreen hardwood species native to the mountainous forests of sub-Saharan Africa, from Cameroon and Kenya through Uganda, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Madagascar, and south to South Africa.

ARA-290, also known as Cibinetide or pHBSP (Helix B Surface Peptide), is an 11-amino-acid peptide — QEQLERALNSS — designed to mimic a specific region of the tissue-protective surface of erythropoietin (EPO) without activating the classical hematopoietic EPO receptor that drives red blood cell production.

Vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid) is a water-soluble essential vitamin that humans, unlike most other mammals, cannot synthesize endogenously due to an inactivating mutation in the gulonolactone oxidase (GULO) gene acquired approximately 61 million years ago in a primate ancestor.

Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide (Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly) developed by Vladimir Khavinson at the St.

Cagrilintide (also known as AM833, development code NN9838) is a long-acting amylin analog developed by Novo Nordisk as a next-generation weight-management therapy, designed to be co-administered with the GLP-1 receptor agonist semaglutide in a fixed-ratio combination known as CagriSema.

MK-677 (also called Ibutamoren or Nutrobal) is an orally-active, non-peptide ghrelin receptor (GHS-R1a) agonist developed by Merck Research Laboratories in the 1990s.

Papain is a proteolytic enzyme extracted from the milky latex of the unripe fruit of the papaya tree (Carica papaya), a tropical plant native to southern Mexico and Central America and now cultivated across the tropics.

Sulbutiamine (chemical name: isobutyryl thiamine disulfide; trade names include Arcalion, Enerion, Bisibutiamine) is a lipophilic synthetic derivative of vitamin B1 (thiamine), developed in Japan in the 1960s by Sankyo Company chemists who were seeking thiamine analogs with enhanced absorption and tissue penetration — particularly brain penetration.

IGF-1 LR3 (Long R3 IGF-1) is a synthetic analog of human insulin-like growth factor 1 modified at two positions to dramatically extend its serum half-life and amplify its tissue bioactivity compared to native IGF-1.

PT-141 (bremelanotide) is a cyclic 7-amino-acid synthetic melanocortin receptor agonist that acts centrally in the brain — not peripherally on genital tissue — to improve sexual desire, arousal, and responsiveness.

Mazdutide (also known as IBI362, Lilly compound LY3305677) is a dual glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucagon receptor agonist originally discovered by Eli Lilly and exclusively licensed to Innovent Biologics in 2019 for development and commercialization in Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan.

ITPP (myo-inositol trispyrophosphate, sometimes written myo-inositol tripyrophosphate or OXY111A in NormOxys trial documents) is a small-molecule allosteric effector of hemoglobin designed to increase the amount of oxygen red blood cells release to tissues.

Bromantane is an atypical psychostimulant and anxiolytic developed in the 1980s at the Zakusov Institute of Pharmacology of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, originally created as an adaptogen for Soviet military and elite athletic use and later approved in Russia for the treatment of neurasthenic and asthenic disorders under the trade name Ladasten.

KPV is a three-amino-acid peptide — Lysine-Proline-Valine — that makes up the C-terminal tail of alpha-MSH (alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone).

IGF-1 Des(1-3) is a truncated variant of insulin-like growth factor-1 missing the first three N-terminal amino acids (Gly-Pro-Glu).

CJC-1295 without DAC (also called Modified GRF 1-29 or MOD-GRF 1-29) is a 30-amino-acid analog of the first 29 residues of endogenous Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH), with four strategic substitutions (D-Ala² for DPP-4 resistance, Gln⁸, Ala¹⁵, Leu²⁷) that extend its plasma half-life from <2 minutes (native GHRH) to ~30 minutes.

Vesugen is a short synthetic peptide developed within Vladimir Khavinson's laboratory at the Saint Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology and marketed in Russia as an oral capsule for vascular and endothelial system support.

Piracetam is the prototypical nootropic — the compound that inaugurated an entire class of cognitive enhancement drugs and gave the category its name.

Pinealon is a synthetic tripeptide — glutamyl-aspartyl-arginine (Glu-Asp-Arg, or EDR) — developed by the St Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology (IBG) under the leadership of Professor Vladimir Khavinson, the dominant figure in what is collectively known as the "Russian short-peptide bioregulator" school of research.

MGF (Mechano Growth Factor) is the local IGF-1Ec splice variant of insulin-like growth factor-1, expressed in skeletal muscle in response to mechanical loading.

Selenium is an essential trace mineral first recognized as toxic in livestock grazing on seleniferous soils in the American West (reported by Kit Carson's expedition in the 1850s) and only later, in 1957, identified as essential for mammalian life when Klaus Schwarz discovered it prevented liver necrosis in rats deficient in the newly-described "Factor 3." The subsequent decades revealed that selenium's essentiality derives from its incorporation into approximately 25 distinct selenoproteins in humans, where it appears as the 21st genetically-encoded amino acid selenocysteine (Sec, U) at specific active sites.

Ovagen is a short synthetic peptide developed in Russia by Vladimir Khavinson and collaborators at the St.

Cortexin is a purified peptide preparation extracted from cattle and pig cerebral cortex tissue — a low-molecular-weight neuropeptide complex used clinically in Russia and Eastern Europe for cognitive impairment, post-stroke recovery, encephalopathy, attention disorders, and pediatric developmental conditions. Like Cerebrolysin, Cortexin is positioned as a broad-spectrum neurotrophic preparation supplying bioactive peptides that mimic endogenous neurotrophic factors.

Livagen is a short synthetic peptide developed in Russia by Vladimir Khavinson and his collaborators at the St.

Melanotan-II (MT-II) is a synthetic cyclic heptapeptide analog of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) engineered in the late 1980s by researchers at the University of Arizona, most prominently Mac Hadley and Victor Hruby, who were searching for a way to stimulate skin pigmentation pharmacologically as a potential skin-cancer prophylactic.

Hexarelin (also called examorelin) is a potent synthetic hexapeptide growth hormone secretagogue with the sequence His-D-2-methyl-Trp-Ala-Trp-D-Phe-Lys-NH2.

Omega-3 fatty acids represent one of the most thoroughly researched nutritional interventions of the past half-century, with thousands of clinical trials, dozens of major meta-analyses, regulatory approvals for specific pharmaceutical preparations, and foundational status in cardiovascular medicine, cognitive health, and inflammatory conditions.

B7-33 is a single-chain, 26-amino-acid peptide engineered as a functionally selective agonist of the relaxin family peptide receptor 1 (RXFP1), designed to recapitulate the therapeutic activity of human H2 relaxin — the endogenous peptide hormone that is naturally elevated during pregnancy and has broad cardioprotective, vasodilatory, and anti-fibrotic effects.

Ipamorelin is a selective pentapeptide ghrelin receptor (GHS-R1a) agonist — one of the most studied growth hormone secretagogues (GHS) in the biohacking community and the modern companion to CJC-1295 / MOD-GRF 1-29.

RU-58841 (also known as PSK-3841 or HMR-3841, and commonly written simply as RU in hair-loss forums) is a non-steroidal androgen receptor antagonist originally developed by Roussel Uclaf (later absorbed into Sanofi) in the late 1980s and early 1990s.

Alpha-GPC (chemical name L-alpha-glycerylphosphorylcholine; pharmaceutical name choline alfoscerate) is a naturally occurring cholinergic compound that serves as a highly bioavailable precursor to both acetylcholine (the primary neurotransmitter of the cholinergic system, central to learning, memory, attention, and neuromuscular function) and phosphatidylcholine (the principal phospholipid building block of neuronal cell membranes).

Aminotadalafil is an unapproved research analog of tadalafil, the PDE5 inhibitor marketed under the brand name Cialis for erectile dysfunction and under Adcirca for pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Cardiogen is a short synthetic peptide developed in Russia by Vladimir Khavinson and his collaborators at the St.

FOXO4-DRI is a synthetic 34-amino-acid D-retro-inverso peptide designed to disrupt the interaction between the FOXO4 transcription factor and p53, with the specific goal of inducing apoptosis selectively in senescent cells.

L-Tyrosine is a non-essential aromatic amino acid and the direct biosynthetic precursor to the catecholamine neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine.

SLU-PP-332 is the first-generation synthetic pan-agonist of the estrogen-related receptors (ERRα, ERRβ, ERRγ) developed by the laboratory of Thomas Burris at Saint Louis University and reported in a landmark 2023 publication that established ERR pan-agonism as a pharmacologically tractable exercise-mimetic drug mechanism.

Tesamorelin is a stabilized synthetic analog of human growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) — specifically the full 44-amino-acid GHRH sequence with a single N-terminal trans-3-hexenoyl fatty-acid modification.

Bronchogen is a short synthetic peptide developed in Russia by Vladimir Khavinson and his collaborators at the St.

Urolithin A (3,8-dihydroxy-6H-dibenzo[b,d]pyran-6-one; trade name Mitopure from Timeline Nutrition, formerly Amazentis) is a gut-microbiome-derived metabolite of dietary ellagitannins — polyphenolic compounds found in pomegranates, walnuts, strawberries, raspberries, and several other berries.

9-Methyl-β-carboline (9-MBC) is a synthetic β-carboline alkaloid that has gained significant interest in the nootropic community for its reported ability to promote dopaminergic neuron growth, increase dopamine synthesis enzymes, and provide neuroprotective effects against neurotoxins.

Cartalax is a short synthetic peptide developed in Russia by Vladimir Khavinson and colleagues at the St.

Chaga (Inonotus obliquus) is a parasitic fungus that grows almost exclusively on birch trees (primarily Betula pendula and Betula pubescens) across the cold-temperate and subarctic forests of Siberia, Northern Russia, Scandinavia, the Baltic states, Canada, Alaska, and the northern tier of the continental United States.

GHK-Cu (copper peptide, glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine:copper(II)) is a naturally occurring tripeptide-copper complex with the amino acid sequence Gly-His-Lys chelated to a copper(II) ion.

Prostamax is a short synthetic peptide developed in Russia by Vladimir Khavinson and collaborators at the St.

Comfrey (Symphytum officinale) is one of the most mechanistically interesting — and simultaneously one of the most legally and toxicologically constrained — herbs in traditional European medicine.

Melanotan-1 (afamelanotide, brand name Scenesse) is a synthetic analog of alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (alpha-MSH).

P-21 is a synthetic cyclic dipeptide — Cyclo(L-prolyl-glycine) — derived from the Selank/Semax C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro motif.

SS-31 (elamipretide; MTP-131; formerly Bendavia; chemical sequence D-Arg-Dmt-Lys-Phe-NH2 with dimethyltyrosine at position 2) is a first-in-class aromatic-cationic tetrapeptide designed to selectively target the inner mitochondrial membrane and bind cardiolipin, the signature mitochondrial phospholipid essential for cristae architecture, electron transport chain organization, and respiratory function.

Modafinil is a prescription wakefulness-promoting agent approved by the US Food and Drug Administration in December 1998 under the brand name Provigil (Cephalon, now Teva) for the treatment of excessive daytime sleepiness associated with narcolepsy, shift work sleep disorder, and as an adjunct to continuous positive airway pressure therapy in obstructive sleep apnea.

NA-Semax is the N-acetyl-l-aspartyl variant of Semax — the original ACTH(4-7) Pro-Gly-Pro analog developed at the Russian Academy of Sciences in the 1990s.

NSI-189 is a novel synthetic compound developed by Neuralstem Inc.

Curcumin is the principal bioactive polyphenol extracted from the rhizome of Curcuma longa (turmeric), constituting approximately 2-8% of dried turmeric root by weight along with two related curcuminoids (demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin).

HGH Fragment 176-191 (also written HGH Frag 176-191, hGH Fragment 176-191, and frequently appearing in clinical literature as AOD-9604 — "Anti-Obesity Drug 9604") is a synthetic peptide corresponding to the C-terminal 15-amino-acid region of the 191-amino-acid human growth hormone (hGH) molecule, with an additional N-terminal tyrosine residue added for stability and biological activity.

NA-Semax Amidate is the C-terminally amidated NA-Semax — the carboxylic acid at the peptide's C-terminus is replaced with an amide group (-NH2), which is reported to further extend metabolic half-life by resisting carboxypeptidase cleavage in addition to the aminopeptidase resistance the N-acetyl group already provides. The practical effect is a peptide with dosing-frequency use: where standard Semax often requires 3-4 daily doses to maintain effect, NA-Semax Amidate is reported (in vendor monographs and community usage) to maintain subjective effects on a 1-2x daily schedule.

Pineleon is a multi-peptide bioregulator blend combining motifs from the Khavinson-school short peptides — typically Pinealon (Glu-Asp-Arg, a pineal-gland-derived tripeptide) along with epigenetic-tier short peptides like Epitalon and Cortexin-derived sequences.

Testagen is a short peptide bioregulator developed inside Vladimir Khavinson's laboratory at the Saint Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology and marketed in Russia as an oral capsule intended to support the male reproductive system — principally the testes, spermatogenesis, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis.

Thymalin is a thymus-derived peptide complex developed in the 1970s by Vladimir Khavinson and the Leningrad (now St.

Vitamin K2 refers to the menaquinone family of fat-soluble vitamins—structurally distinct from but functionally related to vitamin K1 (phylloquinone, found in leafy greens).

AOD-9604 (Anti-Obesity Drug 9604) is a synthetic 16-amino-acid peptide fragment of human growth hormone (hGH) corresponding to residues 177-191 of the hGH molecule plus a tyrosine addition at the N-terminus (sequence: Tyr-Leu-Arg-Ile-Val-Gln-Cys-Arg-Ser-Val-Glu-Gly-Ser-Cys-Gly-Phe).

Chonluten is a bioregulator preparation originating from Vladimir Khavinson's St.

Dihexa is a synthetic peptide analogue of the angiotensin IV metabolite LVV-hemorphin-7, developed at Washington State University.

Epithalon (also spelled Epitalon, sequence Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly / AEDG) is a synthetic tetrapeptide designed by Prof.

Magnesium is the fourth most abundant cation in the human body and the second most abundant intracellular cation after potassium, with approximately 25 grams present in a typical adult—roughly 60% stored in bone, 27% in muscle, 6-7% in other soft tissues, and less than 1% in extracellular fluid including serum.

P-21 Amidate is the amide-modified variant of P-21, the cyclic dipeptide derived from Selank.

PE-22-28 is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide (sequence PAGASRLLLLTGEIDLP derivative, commonly truncated to PE-22-28 as shorthand for "position 22-28" within the parent humanin-family sequence) that was designed as an analog of Humanin with specific interest in activity at glutamate transporter regulation and cytoprotective signaling relevant to depression and neuroprotection.

Phenylpiracetam is a Russian-developed phenyl derivative of piracetam with a dramatically higher potency and stimulant profile.

Semax P-21 is a hybrid synthetic peptide combining structural motifs from Semax and P-21 into a single molecule.

Tadalafil is a selective inhibitor of phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5), an enzyme that hydrolyzes cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) into non-cyclic 5'-GMP.

5-Amino-1MQ (5-amino-1-methylquinolinium iodide) is a small-molecule inhibitor of nicotinamide N-methyltransferase (NNMT), an enzyme that transfers a methyl group from S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) to nicotinamide to form 1-methylnicotinamide (1-MNA) and S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine (SAH).

Acetyl Hexapeptide-8 (INCI: Acetyl Hexapeptide-3 in older nomenclature, commercially known as Argireline) is a synthetic hexapeptide designed as a competitive inhibitor of the SNARE complex at the neuromuscular junction.

Adalank is a hybrid research peptide combining structural elements of Adamax (the adamantane-modified Semax analog) and Selank (the anxiolytic Pro-Gly-Pro tuftsin analog).

Adamax is a synthetic nonapeptide (Ac-MEHFPGPAG-NH2) classified as a designer analog of Semax.

AHK-Cu (Ala-His-Lys-Copper) is a copper chelating tripeptide related to but distinct from GHK-Cu (Gly-His-Lys-Copper).

Alpha-lipoic acid (ALA), also known as thioctic acid or 1,2-dithiolane-3-pentanoic acid, is a sulfur-containing eight-carbon fatty acid derivative synthesized endogenously in mitochondria by lipoic acid synthase (LIAS).

Apigenin is a plant-derived flavone (4',5,7-trihydroxyflavone) that occurs widely in the plant kingdom as a constituent of leaves, flowers, and seeds.

Bacteriostatic water used for reconstituting lyophilized peptide vials.

Berberine is an isoquinoline alkaloid — a naturally occurring plant secondary metabolite with a characteristic yellow color — extracted from the roots, rhizomes, stems, and bark of several plant genera including Berberis (barberry, Oregon grape), Coptis (goldthread), Hydrastis (goldenseal), Phellodendron (Amur cork tree), and Tinospora (guduchi).

Beta-carotene is the most prominent provitamin A carotenoid and one of the most-studied dietary pigments in human nutrition.

Biotin (vitamin B7, also called vitamin H from the German Haut for "skin" and historically named coenzyme R, factor W, factor R, factor X, vitamin Bw, or Bios II in various discovery-era nomenclatures) is a water-soluble vitamin that serves as the covalently-attached prosthetic group for five carboxylase enzymes in human metabolism: pyruvate carboxylase, acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1, acetyl-CoA carboxylase 2, propionyl-CoA carboxylase, and 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase.

Combined healing peptide blend.

CAG (often referring to a collagen-derived or cartilage-targeting peptide sequence) is a short research peptide studied for connective tissue and joint applications.

Choline is an essential nutrient that was classified as a B-vitamin in the 1990s (sometimes loosely called vitamin B4, though that designation is not official) after the Institute of Medicine formally designated it essential in 1998 and established adequate intake recommendations.

CJC-1295 No-DAC (also known as Mod GRF 1-29) is a 29-amino-acid synthetic peptide modeled on the active N-terminal fragment of human Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH 1-29).

CJC-1295 with DAC is the long-acting variant of CJC-1295.

CJC-1295 with DAC (Drug Affinity Complex) is a modified form of CJC-1295 that incorporates a maleimidopropionic acid (MPA) reactive group at the C-terminus.

Pre-mixed GHRH + GHRP blend for synergistic growth hormone release via dual-receptor stimulation..

Clenbuterol is a long-acting, selective beta-2 adrenergic receptor agonist originally developed in the late 1970s by Thomae GmbH (later Boehringer Ingelheim) as a bronchodilator for obstructive airway disease.

Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), also known as ubiquinone-10, ubidecarenone, or simply "coenzyme Q," is a lipid-soluble benzoquinone compound with a 50-carbon isoprenoid side chain (decaprenyl tail) that anchors it within the inner mitochondrial membrane.

Copper is an essential trace mineral that most adults get in adequate amounts from a varied omnivorous diet — but that routinely drops into functional insufficiency when people take long-term high-dose zinc supplements, consume highly processed diets, undergo bariatric surgery, or use copper-chelating therapies.

Cortagen is a synthetic tetrapeptide (Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly) from the Khavinson bioregulator family developed at the St.

Creatine is the most-researched nutritional supplement in sports science and has emerged over the past decade as a cornerstone compound in the broader longevity conversation, extending beyond its traditional ergogenic applications into cognitive performance, brain health in aging, sarcopenia prevention, bone health, and recovery from traumatic brain injury.

Dasatinib (SPRYCEL) is a second-generation oral tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) with FDA approvals for chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) and Philadelphia chromosome-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia (Ph+ ALL).

2-Aminoisoheptane (DMHA/Octodrine) is a psychoactive central nervous system stimulant used as a pre-workout and energy-boosting compound..

Proprietary nasal spray blend designed to support deep sleep and recovery..

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is the most abundant and biologically active catechin polyphenol in green tea (Camellia sinensis), typically constituting 50-80% of total catechins in dried green tea leaves.

GLP-1 receptor agonist used for metabolic effect and appetite regulation..

Finasteride is an orally-active selective type II 5α-reductase inhibitor that blocks the conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone (DHT), the primary androgenic driver of both benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and androgenetic alopecia (male-pattern hair loss).

Fisetin is a polyhydroxy flavonoid (3,3',4',7-tetrahydroxyflavone) that has emerged as one of the most extensively studied natural senolytic compounds and a candidate therapy for age-related disease.

Folate is the generic term for a family of water-soluble B-vitamin compounds that share a pteridine-para-aminobenzoic-acid-glutamate backbone and serve as single-carbon transfer cofactors in nucleotide synthesis, amino acid metabolism, and methylation.

GHK-Cu + BPC-157 + TB-500 blend for skin and recovery.

Glycine is the simplest amino acid—a single hydrogen atom replacing the typical side chain found in other proteinogenic amino acids—yet it performs an wide range of biological functions.

Gotu Kola (Centella asiatica) is one of the oldest and most extensively studied rasayana herbs in Ayurveda — a classical medhya (mind-nourishing) plant that has been used for more than 3,000 years across India, Sri Lanka, China, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, and Madagascar for three main purposes: sharpening cognition and memory, healing wounds and damaged connective tissue, and restoring venous and microvascular circulation.

Hawthorn (Crataegus species — principally Crataegus monogyna, C.

Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is a 237-amino-acid glycoprotein hormone produced naturally during pregnancy by trophoblast cells of the developing embryo, beginning as early as 6-8 days after conception and peaking between weeks 8-11 of gestation at concentrations of 50,000-300,000 mIU/mL maternal serum.

Horny Goat Weed — also called Epimedium, Yin Yang Huo (µ╖½τ╛èΦù┐) in Traditional Chinese Medicine, and barrenwort or bishop's hat in Western botanical nomenclature — is a genus of flowering plants in the Berberidaceae family, with roughly 60 species concentrated in China, Korea, and Japan, of which Epimedium sagittatum, E.

Iodine is a halogen trace mineral and an obligate substrate for thyroid hormone synthesis — the single biochemical fact that dominates all clinical thinking about iodine.

Iron is a trace mineral with a biochemistry dominated by a single chemical property — the reversible one-electron redox between Fe²⁺ (ferrous) and Fe³⁺ (ferric) — that makes it indispensable for oxygen transport, electron transfer, and hundreds of enzymatic reactions, and simultaneously dangerous when unchaperoned in cells.

Active compound from kava for relaxation and sleep support..

GHK-Cu + BPC-157 + TB-500 + KPV blend.

KSPTN is a novel research peptide available from select peptide research vendors.

Lipotropic compound blend injection.

Lycopene is a red pigment carotenoid belonging to the acyclic hydrocarbon carotene subfamily, chemically designated psi,psi-carotene.

A synthetic melanocortin receptor agonist studied for skin tanning, sexual function, and appetite suppression..

Melanotan I (afamelanotide) is a linear synthetic analog of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) with the substitution of norleucine at position 4 and D-phenylalanine at position 7.

Synthetic peptide analog of alpha-MSH for tanning..

Metformin is a biguanide-class oral antihyperglycemic medication that has been in continuous clinical use since 1957 (in France under the brand name Glucophage) and is now the most-prescribed diabetes medication worldwide with over 150 million prescriptions annually.

FDA-approved topical vasodilator used for hair regrowth.

Mucuna pruriens — known as velvet bean in English, Kapikacchu (αñòαñ¬αñ┐αñòαñÜαÑìαñ¢αÑé) or Atmagupta in Sanskrit, Kauchni or Kaunch in Hindi, and cowitch or cowhage in older Western materia medica — is one of the most pharmacologically unusual legumes on earth and one of the very few medicinal plants whose primary active constituent is a well-characterized pharmaceutical drug rather than a complex phytochemical mixture.

Acetylated form of Selank peptide with enhanced bioavailability, commonly used as a nasal spray for anxiolytic and nootropic effects..

Acetylated form of Semax peptide with improved stability and potency, used as a nasal spray for cognitive enhancement and neuroprotection..

N-acetylcysteine (NAC) is the acetylated form of the amino acid L-cysteine — a small thiol-containing molecule that serves as a rate-limiting precursor for glutathione (GSH) synthesis and, independently, as a direct antioxidant and mucolytic agent.

NAD+ and carnitine amino blend for energy and metabolism.

Niacin (vitamin B3) is an umbrella name for a family of closely related vitamers that share the same ultimate metabolic fate — conversion to the pyridine nucleotide coenzymes NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and NADP+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) that serve as the central electron carriers of intermediary metabolism and as substrates for an expanding family of NAD-consuming enzymes (sirtuins, PARPs, CD38, SARM1).

Nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) is a naturally occurring nucleotide derived from ribose and nicotinamide, serving as the direct biosynthetic precursor to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) via a single enzymatic step catalyzed by nicotinamide mononucleotide adenylyltransferase (NMNAT).

Nasal spray combining Noopept (a potent nootropic) with Choline Chloride for synergistic cognitive enhancement..

Orforglipron (also known as LY3502970) is Eli Lilly's investigational oral, non-peptide, small-molecule glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist for the treatment of obesity and type 2 diabetes.

PDRN (Polydeoxyribonucleotide) is a biotechnological compound derived from salmon sperm DNA (Oncorhynchus mykiss) through extraction, purification, and fractionation.

PEG-MGF (Pegylated Mechano Growth Factor) is a synthetic, PEGylated form of Mechano Growth Factor (MGF) — an alternatively spliced variant of IGF-1 produced locally in muscle and other tissues in response to mechanical loading or damage.

Phenibut is the common Western name for β-phenyl-γ-aminobutyric acid (beta-phenyl-GABA; Russian trade names Phenibut/Фенибут, Noofen, Anvifen), a Soviet-era anxiolytic and nootropic developed in the 1960s at the Herzen State Pedagogical Institute in Leningrad under Vsevolod Vasilievich Perekalin.

PNC-27 is a p53-derived peptide that selectively induces membranolysis in cancer cells.

Pterostilbene is a naturally-occurring stilbene polyphenol (trans-3,5-dimethoxy-4'-hydroxystilbene) that is structurally and functionally related to resveratrol but has substantially superior pharmacokinetic properties.

Quercetin is a polyhydroxylated flavonoid compound (chemically 3,3',4',5,7-pentahydroxyflavone) that occurs widely in edible plants as both the free aglycone and a family of glycosides including rutin (quercetin-3-O-rutinoside), isoquercitrin (quercetin-3-O-glucoside), quercitrin (quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside), and multiple related sugar-conjugated forms.

Rapamycin is a macrocyclic lactone antibiotic discovered in 1972 in soil samples from Rapa Nui (Easter Island) by a bacteriology survey team investigating indigenous Streptomyces species.

Riboflavin (vitamin B2) is a water-soluble vitamin that serves as the precursor to two universal flavoprotein cofactors — flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) — which together serve as electron-carrying prosthetic groups in more than 90 human enzymes including Complex I and Complex II of the mitochondrial electron transport chain, the acyl-CoA dehydrogenases of fatty acid β-oxidation, glutathione reductase (the enzyme that regenerates reduced glutathione for antioxidant defense), methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR, the critical folate cycle enzyme), pyridoxine-5-phosphate oxidase (PNPO, which converts dietary B6 vitamers to active PLP), and kynurenine monooxygenase in the tryptophan-to-NAD+ pathway.

Dopaminergic nootropic used for focus and cognitive enhancement..

Combined nootropic and anxiolytic peptide blend.

Shilajit (Sanskrit: shilajatu, शिलाजतु, literally "rock-conqueror" or "rock-invincible"; Hindi/Urdu: shilajit; Persian and Central Asian: mumijo, moomiyo, mumiyo; Pashto/Afghan: salajeet; Latin pharmacopeial: Asphaltum Punjabinum) is a blackish-brown, sticky, resin-like mineral-organic exudate that oozes from cracks in rock formations in high-altitude mountain ranges, most famously the Himalayas and Karakoram but also the Altai, Tien Shan, Caucasus, and Hindu Kush ranges.

Snap-8 (INCI: Acetyl Glutamyl Heptapeptide-1) is a synthetic octapeptide designed as an analog of the N-terminal fragment of synaptosomal-associated protein of 25 kDa (SNAP-25), which is the molecular target of botulinum toxin A (Botox).

Spermidine is a naturally-occurring polyamine essential for cellular growth, division, and differentiation in all living organisms.

Sulforaphane is an organosulfur compound belonging to the isothiocyanate family, found predominantly in cruciferous vegetables (Brassicaceae family) including broccoli, broccoli sprouts, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, kale, bok choy, and collard greens.

Combination of triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) thyroid hormones used in research related to metabolic rate and thyroid function..

TAK-653 is a novel positive allosteric modulator (PAM) of AMPA-type glutamate receptors developed by Takeda Pharmaceuticals.

Taurine is a sulfonic acid (not technically an amino acid, though often classified as one) that ranks among the most abundant free amino acid-like molecules in human tissues.

Thiamine (vitamin B1) is the original vitamin — the deficiency syndrome beriberi was the clinical problem that gave rise to the entire vitamin concept, and the compound isolated from rice polishings by Jansen and Donath in 1926 and synthesized by Robert Williams in 1936 was literally the first "vital amine" (Casimir Funk coined the term vitamine in 1912 after investigating the anti-beriberi factor).

TUDCA (tauroursodeoxycholic acid) is a hydrophilic bile acid formed by taurine conjugation of ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA, the active ingredient in the widely-prescribed cholestasis medication Ursodiol).

VIP (Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide) is a 28-amino-acid neuropeptide and hormone that is widely expressed throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems, gastrointestinal tract, and immune system.

Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) is a water-soluble cobalt-containing vitamin that serves as a coenzyme for two critical enzymes in human metabolism: methionine synthase (cytoplasmic) and L-methylmalonyl-CoA mutase (mitochondrial).

Vitamin B6 is a water-soluble B-vitamin family comprising six interconvertible vitamers — pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine, and their phosphorylated forms — that converge on the single active coenzyme pyridoxal 5-phosphate (PLP, also written P5P).

Zeaxanthin is a xanthophyll carotenoid that functions alongside lutein and meso-zeaxanthin as one of the three pigments comprising the macula lutea — the yellow spot in the central retina responsible for high-acuity daytime vision.

Zinc is an essential trace mineral — the second most abundant metal ion in the human body after iron — and one of the most biologically versatile elements in all of physiology.